02936nas a2200145   4500008004100000245010000041210006900141260000900210300001200219490000800231520238300239100002202622700002802644856011802672       2011                        eng d00aFrom Attack to Emergence: Interactions between Southern Pine Beetle, Mites, Microbes, and Trees0 aFrom Attack to Emergence Interactions between Southern Pine Beet  c2011  a141-1520 v1403 aBark beetles are among the most ecologically and economically influential organisms in forest ecosystems worldwide. These important organisms are consistently associated in complex symbioses with fungi. Despite this, little is known of the net impacts of the fungi on their vectors, and mites are often completely overlooked. In this chapter, we will describe interactions involving the southern pine beetle (SPB), among the most economically damaging of North American forest insects. We examine SPB interactions with mites, fungi, and other microbes, following the natural temporal progression from beetle attack to offspring emergence from trees. Associations with fungi are universal within bark beetles. Many beetle species possess specialized structures, termed mycangia, for the transport of fungi. The SPB consistently carries three main fungi and numerous mites into the trees it attacks. One fungus, Ophiostoma minus, is carried phoretically on the SPB exoskeleton and by phoretic mites. The mycangium of each female SPB may contain a pure culture of either Ceratocystiopsis ranaculosus or Tntomocorticiumr sp. A. The mycangial fungi are, by definition, transferred in a specific fashion. The SPB possesses two types of gland cells associated with the mycangium. The role of these cells and their products remains unknown. Preliminary studies have observed yeast-like fungal spores in the mycangium and several surrounding tubes that presumably carry secreted chemicals from gland cells (or bacteria) to the mycangium. The degree to which there is selective activity of the glandular chemical secretions remains to be seen. While O. minus may play some role in tree killing, none of these three fungi are highly virulent in their pine hosts. All three fungi grow within the phloem, sporulating heavily in beetle tunnels within which the SPB larvae graze. Though their ecological roles arc complex and context-dependent, these three fungi can be divided into an antagonist (O. minus) and two mutualists (both mycangial fungi, though F,ntnnmcorticium sp. A appears to be of greater benefit to the beetles than C. ranaculosus). Naturally, all three of the fungi compete for access to uncolonized pine phloem. The results of these competitions can have significant impacts on their beetle and mite hosts, and ultimately on the population dynamics of this destructive pest.1 aKlepzig, Kier, D.1 aHofstetter, Richard, W.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/attack-emergence-interactions-between-southern-pine-beetle-mites-microbes-and-trees01726nas a2200133   4500008004100000245005600041210005600097260000900153300001200162490000800174520130300182100002801485856007901513       2011                        eng d00aMutualists and Phoronts of the Southern Pine Beetle0 aMutualists and Phoronts of the Southern Pine Beetle  c2011  a161-1810 v1403 aThe large numbers of invertebrates and microbes that exist only within dying and decayed pines killed by the southern pine beetle (SPB) make this system ideal for the study of species interactions, including mutualism and phorecy. The associated organisms comprise an entire functioning community that includes fungivores, herbivores, detritovores, scavengers, parasitoids, and predators. Because the SPB causes physical state changes in biotic materials and creates a stable supply of resources for an extensive assemblage of species, it can be considered a keystone species, ecosystem engineer, or foundation species. Within the SPB community, species interactions range from mutualistic to commensafistie to antagonistic, depending on the species composition, environmental conditions, and quality of available resources. These species often use SPB adults to access and disperse among trees and can affect the population dynamics, behavior, and evolution of the SPB. In addition, interactions among the community can impact bark beetle-fungal associations and thus, beetle fitness. In this chapter, I provide an overview of the known associations with the SPB, both mutualistic and phoretic, and discuss how these associations impact the SPB and the evolution and ecology within this community.1 aHofstetter, Richard, W.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/mutualists-and-phoronts-southern-pine-beetle01865nas a2200181   4500008004100000245004800041210004800089260000900137300001000146490000800156520134500164653001701509100001901526700002201545700002301567700002201590856007101612       2011                        eng d00aNatural History of the Southern Pine Beetle0 aNatural History of the Southern Pine Beetle  c2011  a13-240 v1403 aThe southern pine beetle (SPB) is a tree killer of southern yellow pines. All life stages----eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults[long dash]infest the inner bark or phloem tissue of the host tree. Adult beetles overcome the tree's defenses through a mass-attack phenomenon. They are attracted to the tree by a pheromone system consisting of volatiles produced by the beetles and the host. The pheromone system also prevents the beetles from over-colonizing the tree. Once inside the tree, parent adults construct serpentine egg galleries in the inner bark tissue. Individual eggs are deposited in egg niches along the egg gallery. After eclosion, the larvae develop on host tissue, and development is aided by mycangial fungi deposited in the egg galleries by the adult females. Pupation occurs in the outer bark, and brood adults emerge to attack another nearby tree. As this process continues infestation spots of dead and dying trees can be created. Generally an SPB spot gets its start on stressed and weakened tress. Depending upon climate, the number of SPB generations per year can vary from one to nine. The SPB has the capacity to cause periodic large-scale eniptions that encompass entire regions of the South. Host resistance, predators, parasites, diseases, and competitors all keep SPB populations in check during nonepidemic years.10aDendroctonus1 aHain, Fred, P.1 aDuehl, Adrian, J.1 aGardner, Micah, J.1 aPayne, Thomas, L.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/natural-history-southern-pine-beetle00368nas a2200133   4500008004100000245002800041210002800069260000900097300001600106490000800122100002400130700002200154856005800176       2011                        eng d00aSouthern Pine Beetle II0 aSouthern Pine Beetle II  c2011  ai-vi, 1-5140 v1401 aCoulson, Robert, N.1 aKlepzig, Kier, D.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/southern-pine-beetle-ii00828nas a2200133   4500008004100000245006200041210006000103260000900163300000900172490000800181520039300189100002500582856008700607       2011                        eng d00aA review of Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann systematics0 areview of Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann systematics  c2011  a7-120 v1403 aThe systematic history of the southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontolis Zimmermann, is reviewed. Morphological, biological, karyological, and molecular data clearly define and diagnose the species limits of D. frontalis. More complete phylogenetic analysis and characterization of population genetic variation will taxonomy further clarify the evolutionary history of the D. frontalis.1 aCognato, Anthony, I.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/review-dendroctonus-frontalis-zimmermann-systematics02814nas a2200181   4500008004100000245015400041210006900195260001200264300001900276490000800295520209700303653002702400100001702427700001902444700001702463700001702480856013502497       2009                        eng d00aDocumentation and user guides for SPBLOB: a computer simulation model of the joint population dynamics for loblolly pine and the southern pine beetle0 aDocumentation and user guides for SPBLOB a computer simulation m  cJanuary  ai-vii, 1, 3-830 v1143 aSPBLOB is a computer simulation model for the interaction between loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), the economically most important forest crop in the United States, and the southern pine beetle (SPB: Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm.), the major insect pest for this species. The model simulates loblolly pine stands from time of planting until harvest. It mimics day-to-day changes in SPB populations, and the associated tree mortality caused by these bark beetles. In addition, it provides yearly updates of tree mortality due to competition and of growth for the surviving trees. Chiely, the model and its simulation codes are designed to function as research tools for investigating the inluence of stand properties on SPB activities, and of the reciprocal impact of beetles on tree mortality. Model output relates to both trees and beetles. Simulations provide daily and yearly luctuations in the size, composition, and spread of beetle populations within a stand. Stand types (e.g., plantations derived from seedlings or from clonally generated materials) can be compared in terms of average total merchantable volume of timber per acre at time of harvest and/or by average proportions of surviving trees. Average stand yields in the presence of beetles can also be compared with those when beetles are absent, thus providing a basis for estimating the real cost of beetle damage in loblolly stands. In this Documentation we briely describe the model, then outline the concepts and structure upon which the SPBLOB simulation source code is based. The included User Guides specify the input information regarding a loblolly stand and its environment required to run two executable Simulation Codes - a single-stand Interactive Simulation code, in which a user can specify features they wish the simulated stand to possess, and a Multiple-Simulation code that can be used to run large numbers of independent replicates of various stand designs. These Guides also describe the extensive variety of information about simulated tree and beetle populations that can be retrieved during simulations.10aDendroctonus frontalis1 aBishir, John1 aRoberds, James1 aStrom, Brian1 aWan, Xiaohai  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/documentation-and-user-guides-spblob-computer-simulation-model-joint-population-dynamics-loblolly-pi02488nas a2200133   4500008004100000245010500041210006900146260000900215300001200224490000800236520196000244100002502204856012502229       2011                        eng d00aAerial Detection, Ground Evaluation, and Monitoring of the Southern Pine Beetle: State Perspecitives0 aAerial Detection Ground Evaluation and Monitoring of the Souther  c2011  a245-2620 v1403 aThe southern pine beetle (SPB), is recognized as the most serious insect pest of southern pine forests. Outbreaks occur almost every year somewhere within its wide range, requiring intensive suppression efforts to minimize resource losses to Federal, State, and private forests. Effective management involves annual monitoring of SPB populations and aerial detection and ground evaluation of multiple-tree infestations during outbreaks. The 16 southern and northeastern States that face periodic SPB outbreaks have developed operational methods for detection and evaluation of new infestations and pending outbreaks of this destructive forest pest. Methods used by State forestry agencies for State and private forest lands often differ from those used on Federal forest lands and also vary significantly among States. This chapter describes the methodologies used by various States for conducting aerial detection flights and subsequent ground check evaluations for SPB. New technological developments, including geographical information systems, global positioning systems, digital sketchmapping systems, and coordinated Internet-based reporting systems, are being incorporated into traditional suppression operations to better manage this bark beetle pest. Also, a unique region-wide system for monitoring SPB populations and predicting infestation trends has been developed and implemented throughout the South. The first of its kind for any bark beetle species in the world, this system utilizes a network of pheromone traps deployed in early spring. Predictions of SPB activity to expect at the county, ranger district, and State level are made by comparing relative catches of SPB and those of a major SPB predator, the clerid Thanasimus dubius. Standardized monitoring, aerial detection, and ground evaluation protocols have become widely used by State forestry agencies and are considered essential components for the effective management of SPB.1 aBillings, Ronald, F.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/aerial-detection-ground-evaluation-and-monitoring-southern-pine-beetle-state-perspecitives01411nas a2200145   4500008004100000245006900041210006900110260000900179300001100188490000800199520092100207653002701128100001701155856009301172       2011                        eng d00aPopulation Dynamics of Southern Pine Beetle in Forest Landscapes0 aPopulation Dynamics of Southern Pine Beetle in Forest Landscapes  c2011  a91-1080 v1403 aSouthern pine beetle (SPB) is an important pest of Southeastern United States pine forests. Periodic regional outbreaks are characterized by localized areas of tree mortality (infestations) surrounded by areas with little or no damage. Ultimately, this spatiotemporal pattern of tree mortality is driven by the dynamics of SPB populations[long dash]more specifically, by rates of survival, reproduction, development, and dispersal. In turn these rates are driven by the interaction between SPB and its hosts, predators, and climate. In this chapter, the relationship between these factors and SPB population ecology are discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on mechanisms that could explain the temporal changes of the population from outbreak to nonoutbreak phases, the dispersal of SPB across a complex forest landscape, and the importance of interpreting the environment using current knowledge of SPB ecology.10aDendroctonus frontalis1 aBirt, Andrew  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/population-dynamics-southern-pine-beetle-forest-landscapes01268nas a2200145   4500008004100000245003300041210003300074260000900107300001200116490000800128520087900136653002701015100001701042856006301059       2011                        eng d00aRegional Population Dynamics0 aRegional Population Dynamics  c2011  a109-1280 v1403 aThe population dynamics of the southern pine beetle (SPB) exhibit characteristic fluctuations between relatively long endemic and shorter outbreak periods. Populations exhibit complex and hierarchical spatial structure with beetles and larvae aggregating within individual trees, infestations with multiple infested trees, and regional outbreaks that comprise a large number of spatially distinct infestations. Every year at least some part of the Southern United States experiences outbreaks, and the large and unpredictable timber losses associated with these make the SPB the most important pest of southern tbrests. This chapter reviews the mechanisms that may drive SPB populations at a regional scale. More specifically, it focuses on the initiation and decline of' outbreaks, the patterns of damage within them, and the utility of this knowledge for managing the SPB.10aDendroctonus frontalis1 aBirt, Andrew  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/regional-population-dynamics01728nas a2200133   4500008004100000245004400041210004400085260000900129300001200138490000800150520134800158100002101506856006701527       2011                        eng d00aParasitoids of the Southern Pine Beetle0 aParasitoids of the Southern Pine Beetle  c2011  a129-1390 v1403 aHymenopterous parasitoids make up a significant portion of the natural enemy complex associated with the southern pine beetle (SPB). Collectively, parasitoids can affect the growth of individual SPB infestations and area populations by reducing the survival rates of developing SPB larval/pupal broods. A substantial body of information on parasitoids has been accumulated,mostly during and after research supported by the Expanded Southern Pine Beetle Research and biological control Applications Program (ESPBRAP) during the 1970s. The parasitoids most associated with the SPB have been identified, and a key to larvae of the most abundant species is available. The sequence of arrival of' parasitoids at infested pines relative to SPB attack and brood development has been documented. Some chemical cues by which parasitoids locate trees infested with SPB broods that are in susceptible developmental stages have been determined. However, the precise mechanism by which parasitoids locate specific hosts beneath the bark has not been described, although it is thought to involve specific olfactory cues. Factors that affect parasitoid efficacy such as host density and bark thickness have been quantified, and the overall contribution of parasitoids to natural enemy impact has been estimated and incorporated into population growth models.1 aBerisford, Wayne  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/parasitoids-southern-pine-beetle01804nas a2200157   4500008004100000245006000041210005900101260000900160300001000169490000800179520129100187100002301478700002601501700003001527856008901557       2011                        eng d00aSouthern Pine Beetle Ecology: Populations within Stands0 aSouthern Pine Beetle Ecology Populations within Stands  c2011  a75-890 v1403 aPopulations of southern pine beetle (SPB) are typically substructured into local aggregations, each with tens of thousands of individual beetles. These aggregations, known as "spots" because of their appearance during aerial surveys, are the basic unit for the monitoring and management of SPB populations in forested regions. They typically have a maximum lifespan of I year, being born in the spring when dispersing SPB aggregate at points in the forest. Spots that survive to the following spring produce the dispersing beetles that form a new population of spots. SPB epidemics rise and fall with interannual variation in the number of spots within a region. Many spots, especially those that begin small, die an early death by midsummer. Others may grow throughout the summer and into the winter via a self-propagating progression of tree attacks that is critically structured by semiochemicals. Forces that influence the growth of populations within spots strongly influence the dynamic fluctuations in SPB impacts on regional forests. These forces include pine species composition, habitat edges, age and basal area of pine stands, tree defenses, the predator Thanasirnus dubins, interactions with phoretic mites and fungi, climate, and movement of beetles into and out of spots.1 aAyres, Matthew, P.1 aMartinson, Sharon, J.1 aFriedenberg, Nicholas, A.  uhttps://weevil.myspecies.info/southern-pine-beetle-ecology-populations-within-stands